Production Systems in Pre-colonial Africa
· In book: The History of African Development
· Chapter: Chapter 3
· Publisher: African economic history network
· Editors: Ewout Frankema, Ellen Hillbom
Production systems in pre-colonial Africa
Erik Green
1) Introduction
How productive was Africa before the colonisers came? Was the continent underdeveloped or developing? Was production stagnant or dynamic? In this chapter we will see that it was both. Pre-colonial history shows us evidence of progress because of African pioneering abilities, but also setbacks because of the hard conditions people had to face in those days. People in pre-colonial Africa were engaged in hunting and gathering, agriculture, mining and simple manufacturing. Agriculture involved most people, so the chapter looks mainly at farming activities. The chapter explains that farmers in those days faced two big challenges: a hostile environment and scarcity of labour. In many regions the environmental conditions were unfavourable for production. And almost all regions suffered from a shortage of labour. We will see that there were many different systems of agricultural production in pre-colonial Africa, to suit the variety of conditions the people faced.
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SLEEPING SICKNESS IN NORTHERN RHODESIA. The Lancet 1912
A REPORT by Dr. A. May, the principal medical officer of Northern Rhodesia, has been recently issued, containing an account of work done in regard to sleeping sickness prevention up to last February. A commission, under Dr. Allan Kinghorn, of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, investigated the disease prevalence in the Luangwa Valley, and confirmed the fact that glossina morsitans transmits the trypano-some, about 5 per cent. of the flies becoming permanently infected and capable of transmitting the virus. Further experiments are now being carried out under different climatic conditions on the Muchinga plateau area. As to the exact identity of the trypanosome found there seems to be some doubt. Stephens and Fantham consider it to be a new species, trypanosoma rhodesiense. The disease appears to have existed in the Luangwa Valley for a considerable time under the native name of chilotera. In the examination of the native population the signs found to be of most value in making a. diagnosis have been pyrexia, puffiness of the face and eyelids, tremor of tongue and general shakiness, a vacant expression, and slowness of movement and speech. Glands are palpated and punctured, and microscopic examinations of the blood and gland juice carried out, Dr. May considers blood examination to be of little value compared with gland puncture, trypanosomes being rarely found in the peripheral circulation (except during pyrexial attacks) by the methods of microscopic examination practicable under the circumstances. There is, unfortunately, little doubt that the extent of country infested by glossina morsitans is much greater than was the case a few years ago. Dr. May does not altogether agree with the opinion, extensively held in Rhodesia, that the larger antelopes are responsible for the presence of tsetse fly and that their destruction would be quickly followed by its disappearance. There are also many practical difficulties in the way. An experiment, however, is being now carried out in a definitely restricted fly belt which will furnish grounds for deciding whether the complete destruction of all game in a limited area is the best procedure to adopt. The three possible methods of prophylaxis are considered : 1. Destruction of the fly cannot be attempted with any hope of success by any means known at present. 2. Removal of all sources of infection implies not only removal of infected human beings---i. e. , segregation— but also removal of infected animals. Segregation of the inhabitants is regarded with extreme distrust and fear-not naturally, considering that up to the present nearly all the cases so removed have terminated fatally. Dr. - May recommends that for the present it be discontinued as an essential preventive measure, except in the neighbourhood stations, and in connexion with amalgamation or removal of
villages, where it is practicable and effective. 3. This last-mentioned plan of action is the one that he recommends-viz., the amalgamation and removal of conveniently placed villages to a suitable fly-free area, where the disease could be treated and the necessary supervision exercised. Various other measures in detail are also recommended, including clearings around cultivated lands, clearing of game, and the adoption of certain routes for travelling, which should, as far as possible, be rendered safe from infection. The problem is one of immense difficulty, but it is not too much to say that the prosperity of a large part of central Africa depends on its successful solution.
TSETSE VISIONS: NARRATIVES OF BLOOD AND BUGS IN COLONIAL NORTHERN RHODESIA, 1931-9
BY LUISE WHIT
National Humanities Center, North Carolin
This article explores the interaction of popular culture and imperial science, arguing that the very specific vampire accusations that emerged in the
Northern Province of Northern Rhodesia in the 1930s involved local and colonial ideas about the relationship between wild animals, tsetse flies,
authority and shifting cultivation (citemene).
This article looks at different kinds of historical sources - colonial science and African rumours - and argues that both can be used to reconstruct the history of changing colonial policies, and African responses to them, for tsetse and game control in the Northern Province of Northern Rhodesia in the 1930s. These sources and the arguments I have developed from them can be read as separate and distinct historical narratives, but evertheless each articulates a specific rela- tionship between African farmers, shifting cultivation and wild animals. Each history discloses a vision of how best to control a dreaded disease, and each history describes a separate and distinct landscape in which Africans, insects and wild animals might best live together. Moreover, each source reveals the close links between African ideas about the forcible extraction of vital fluids and European ideas about sleeping sickness, insect vectors and deforestation.
Teaching the African to be a successful producer
The Rhodesian and Central African Annual - 1954
Behind these pictures is a story of successful endeavour to wean the African from his soil destroying methods of agriculture. On irrigated plots, trained African demonstrators, teach good farming methods. On areas of irrigated land eight to sixteen Africans agree to work their land on a crop rotation system under the guidance of demonstrators. The African is taught that under the supervision of Land Development officers self-help is an essential of good farming. The picture shows a bullock cart made by Africans taking part in the Sabi development scheme. The other picture show a native fruit stall on the Umtali-Fort Victoria Road where is displayed some of the products of an irrigated plot.
The Sabi Valley is now being surveyed and experiments carried out by Dr. Converse. It is hoped to prove, in the course of a few years, that by irrigation the Sabi Valley can contribute much towards making the Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation virtually self-supporting in a matter of food supplies.
Zambia by Richard Vaughan
Almost one tenth of Zambia's arable land is at present agriculturally utilized and seventy per cent of the working population are engaged in some sort of farming. Since agriculture is the only major alternative to copper as a foreign exchange earner, Zambia needs to export sufficient cash crops to replace the income lost by the copper industry's decline.
In the colonial days, the large scale commercial farmers were mainly Europeans. They made a substantial contribution to crop production, but many decided not to continue after Independence. The bulk of the rural population contributed little to this production, and constituted no viable market for the products of other sectors of the economy. Thus in the mid-1960s, an ambitious programme of crop production was embarked upon.
Only a succession of droughts in recent years has prevented Zambia from meeting all her needs in maize, the staple diet. In order to reduce import bills, steps have been taken to produce seed potatoes locally, while commercial storage of Zambian-grown onions has largely offset out-of-season shortages.
cont.
The GIANT of the Rhodesian Forests
The Rhodesian and Central African Annual - 1954
The Baobab or elephant tree as it is known dwarfs all other trees of the forest, rising to heights of from 100 to 120 feet, with a trunk often measuring 80 to 100 feet in girth. For eight or nine months of the year this strange prehistoric looking monster stands leafless like a pillar of weathered rock with its gnarled and blistered bark. Then in an incredibly short time the network of branches in its contorted limbs break into profuse and verdant foliage, followed by large wax-like blossoms of remarkable beauty, somewhat resembling inverted lilies. They compare favourably with choice conservatory blooms, and it is astonishing to find such beauty on these enormous and often grotesque trees.
The Baobab, although of little commercial value, its wood being so extremely soft, is very much the natives' friend for it supplies many of his needs. First the fruit or pod nearly the size of a rugby football, packed with seeds thickly coated with cream of tartar, making a refreshing drink when dissolved in water and if allowed to ferment slightly, becoming effervescent. The kernels when dried are some times pounded with native-grown grain for meal. The gourd can be ground up and blended with tobacco and herbs and is taken as snuff by the older natives. The empty calabash is handy as a drinking cup or bailer for boatmen.
Next in importance is the bark, for when shredded it becomes white and fairly texture suitable for weaving into cloth and rope-making. The trunk with its innumerable cavities and the heavy pollen on the blossoms are a great attraction for bees and their hives, and consequently a deal of honey is stored there. The natives easily gather it, the trunk being soft enough to allow pegs being driven in at intervals forming rungs of a ladder. Many of the trunks are hollow and serve as tanks or reservoirs, catching the rain water, or being filled from some stream in the locality. The water stored keeps sweet and cool, there being no evaporation, and is of inestimable value in time of drought. The inside of this natural tank has been found to be lined with bark similar to the outside, so that corruption or decay of the wood is prevented.
Although the Baobab has been cut and abused by man and animals and also by the elements through countless ages, it seems to be almost indestructible; undoubtedly if its timber had been harder and of use for commercial purposes, this interesting tree would long since disappeared.
what is the age of these ancient monarchs? Dr. Livingstone reported finding an enormous specimen near to the Victoria Falls. This is much finer in form than most Baobabs. It is still going strong and likely to continue so. Its age is therefore a matter of guesswork.
“but only God can make a tree”
The Rhodesian (Central African) Annual, 1962
On the main road between Ndola and Kitwe stands a striking tree which to the Bemba people is the Mofu, to the botanist Entandrophragma delevoyii to the trader, Brown Mahogany. It it certainly the king of Northern Rhodesia's woodlands, for the species produces the tallest indigenous trees in the country. A plaque on the tree quotes the poem of an unknown author. The plaque was erected over ten years ago by Mr. C. E. Duff, one time Chief Conservator of Forests.
THE PRAYER OF THE FOREST
You who pass by and would raise your hand against me,
Hearken ere you harm me
I am your fire on the cold winter nights,
The friendly shade screening you from the summer sunday
My fruits quench your thirst on your journey.
I am the beam that holds your house
The board of your table
The bed on which you lie
The timber that builds your boat
I am the handle of your hoe#
The door of your house
The wood of your cradle
The shell of your coffin
You who pass by
Hearken to my prayer
-Harm me not
THE CHICHELE MOFU TREE, Ndola City
The Chichele Mofu tree was declared a National Monument by his Excellency the first Republican President, Dr. K. D. Kaunda World Forestry Day. It symbolised the need to conserve trees and use them wisely.
The tree was also part of Zambia's folklore, as it had a 'Ngulu' or 'Spirit house' in which, according to Lamba tradition, the spirit of a Chief long dead, lived. The tree, a Zambian national monument, which stood proudly dominant about 34m tall with a girth of 3m was believed to be more than 200 years old. However, on 2nd Match 2008, the Chichele Mofu Tree which was familiar landmark on the Ndola- Kitwe dual carriage way succumbed to nature and collapsed due to heavy rainfall and strong winds.
A new Mofu tree was planted at the site on 1st December 2010 by President Rupiah Banda.
https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/zmb/copperbelt/ndola/20822_t3_ndolakitweroad/
Last of the Bemba Bark Cloth Makers, Zambia
Bark fibre was, until the early 20th century, the traditional material for making clothing and containers among communities in northern Zambia. The introduction of commercial textiles and plastics containers led to the dramatic decline in bark-cloth production to the extent that only three individuals are currently known to still retain the knowledge of this craft. These three men produce small quantities of coarse and fine bark-cloth, the former for daily use and the latter for ceremonial use. No detailed studies have been made of this endangered craft tradition. The aim of this project is to record the working methods of these craftsmen and elicit information on how they learned their craft, as well as their perceptions of the social value of this traditional material.